No Trilho dos Instrumentos: Os Gabinetes Reais de Filosofia Natural em Portugal (séculos XVIII-XIX)

Instituição de acolhimento

Museu de Ciência da Universidade de Lisboa (MCUL/UL)

Descrição

A aristocracia europeia reúne colecções pelo menos desde o final da Idade Média (Mauriès 2002, Impey & MacGregor 2001). No Renascimento, globos, esferas armilares, astrolábios e relógios eram expostos em bibliotecas e ‘Wunderkammer’, por entre pinturas, esculturas, antiguidades e espécimes naturais. Contudo, é apenas no final do séc. XVII e durante o séc. XVIII que os instrumentos científicos são deliberada e regularmente organizados em colecções com o propósito de conhecer o mundo natural. Estas colecções designam-se gabinetes de física ou de filosofia natural.

Entre os mais importantes gabinetes reais de física do Renascimento europeu contam-se os de Francesco I de’ Medici’ no Palácio Vecchio em Florença, de Rudolfo II em Praga e do Eleitor Augusto em Dresden. Em 1750, George III reuniu em Londres aquele que é, provavelmente hoje, o mais completo gabinete real de instrumentos científicos do séc. XVIII. Estes gabinetes estão bem estudados e os objectos que sobreviveram encontram-se catalogados e acessíveis quer aos historiadores quer ao público geral, por palácios e museus em toda a Europa.

A família real portuguesa também possuiu gabinetes de filosofia natural. Desde o início do séc. XVIII, quando a abundância de ouro proveniente do Brasil permitiu aquisições junto dos melhores fabricantes europeus, que existem instrumentos científicos nos palácios, quer para a instrução dos príncipes quer para o entretenimento da Corte. Sabemos terem existido pelo menos cinco gabinetes autónomos, dois no séc. XVIII e três no séc. XIX: o Gabinete e Observatório de D. João V (c. 1720-1750), o Gabinete de D. José (c.1770-1788), o Gabinete de D. Pedro e D. Luís (c.1840), o Gabinete de D. Carlos e D. Afonso (c.1860-70) e o Gabinete de D. Luís Filipe e D. Manuel (c.1890) (Carvalho 1982, 1985, Brigola 2003, Guedes 2004). Na sequência das ocupações francesas, um gabinete de física seguiu com a Corte para o Brasil em 1808 (Pinheiro 2001).

Apesar de referidos brevemente na historiografia, os gabinetes reais têm suscitado escasso interesse por parte dos historiadores portugueses, contrariamente aos seus congéneres europeus. Desconhecemos o seu conteúdo, uso e até mesmo a sua localização. Até há bem pouco tempo, ignorava-se se algum instrumento teria sobrevivido.

Estudos efectuados recentemente, porém, conduziram à ‘descoberta’ de 40 instrumentos provenientes dos palácios reais. Um grupo de mais 52 instrumentos encontra-se presentemente em estudo para confirmar a proveniência. Estes instrumentos cobrem 320 anos de história da ciência. Os mais antigos são um quadrante flamengo de 1573 (portanto anterior à reforma gregoriana) e um globo celeste em latão, da autoria de Christopher Schissler, um fabricante alemão que possivelmente construiu instrumentos para Tycho Brahe, entre outros (Reis 1994, Keil & Zäh 2007). O mais recente é um fonógrafo de Edison de 1893. Existem telescópios, octantes, máquinas pneumáticas, globos, esferas armilares, planetários animados para fins didácticos, entre muitos outros. Dos 40, apenas três estão estudados (Reis 1994, Seruya & Pereira 2005). São, na sua maioria, desconhecidos e encontram-se inacessíveis para a comunidade científica internacional.

 A importância histórica (e a raridade) destes instrumentos é notável, não pode ser ignorada e levanta questões que estão no cerne deste projecto de investigação: Existirão mais instrumentos ‘reais’? Quem os fabricou? Quando e para que fins foram adquiridos? Quais foram os seus contextos de aquisição, uso e circulação? Qual a sua relevância hoje?

Este projecto reúne historiadores da ciência com experiência de cultura material e especialistas internacionais para estudar estes instrumentos e, partindo deles, explorar a constituição, conteúdo e história dos gabinetes reais de filosofia natural setecentistas e oitocentistas em Portugal. Os resultados previstos compreendem uma série de artigos científicos, três teses de doutoramento e uma de mestrado, uma ‘workshop’, uma conferência internacional, um catálogo ‘raisonné’ e uma página Web. Prevê-se igualmente que os resultados desta investigação possam ser apresentados numa exposição reunindo os instrumentos actualmente dispersos.

Os resultados mais significativos deste projecto, porém, serão de natureza mais ampla. O que temos hoje é um grupo notável de instrumentos bonitos e pouco conhecidos que este projecto pretende dotar de significado e contexto histórico. Em particular, o projecto contribuirá para o nosso conhecimento sobre o papel dos instrumentos no ensino, divulgação e desenvolvimento da ciência, uma área largamente inexplorada na história da ciência portuguesa. O projecto estabelecerá igualmente bases mais sólidas para o desenvolvimento de estudos de instrumentos e de história das colecções em Portugal. Finalmente, o estudo destes instrumentos contribuirá consideravelmente para a sua preservação e acessibilidade e, mais geralmente, para a promoção do património científico português.

Revisão de literatura (em inglês)

Cabinets of natural philosophy, or cabinets of physics, first appeared in mid-17th century and, especially, in the 18th century (Turner 2001). Early examples are the Cabinet of the Accademia del Cimento (1657), the Royal Society (1662) and, in universities, the Cabinets of Leiden (1675), Utrecht (1706) and Padua (1739) (Lourenço 2005). There is an extensive international bibliography on the role cabinets played in teaching, research and the dissemination of science (e.g. Taton 1969, Turner 2001, Novelli 2000) and many case-studies (e.g. Brenni 1995, Clercq 1992, Pantalony et al. 2005).

The cabinet of physics has a singular place in the history of collections and history of science. In its teaching version, the cabinet of physics still exists essentially unaltered in schools and universities around the world (Turner 2001, Lourenço 2005, in press). Unlike cabinets of natural history, the internal logic of the cabinet of physics was not one of learning through accumulation. Instruments were acquired to be used and once they became obsolete, they were replaced by more accurate ones. A cabinet of physics is a mirror of scientific innovation at a given moment, particularly when the owner is wealthy.

Kings and princes liked cabinets of natural philosophy because they offered social prestige and satisfied their curiosity, superstition, love of learning and the appreciation of beauty and fine craftsmanship (Turner 2001). They also saw wealth and power in scientific development. On the other hand, natural philosophers needed patrons and instrument-makers needed buyers. An intense circuit of knowledge and instrument trade flourished around 18th-19th century cabinets of physics. Studying these cabinets provides insights about scientific development and personalities, innovation trends, political and commercial relations and social taste.

Portuguese 18th and 19th century cabinets of physics - and perhaps earlier ones, as recent research seems to suggest (Leitão 2001, 2008) - have received little attention from historians. Portugal has no tradition in the history of scientific collections and the attention of historians focused on 18th century cabinets of natural history (e.g. Simon 1983, Brigola 2003). General studies of the history of Portugal (e.g. Serrão 1996) and recent biographies of the royal family (e.g. Silva 2006, Monteiro 2008) offer only scarce references to collections. Since no significant instruments were found until recently, Portuguese historiography seems to have taken for granted that royal cabinets were dispersed and lost due to a chequered history of wars, fires and earthquakes.

The foremost studies on 18th century cabinets of physics in Portugal were those by Carvalho (1959, 1978, 1982, 1985, 1993). These works are important for their systematic review of primary sources, but were done from the perspective of the history of ideas. Only one is a collection study, using instruments as a primary source (Carvalho 1978). Moreover, Carvalho’s studies lack perspective in the broader context of cabinets of physics in Europe. None of his studies specifically addressed royal cabinets, whose contents and history have long been ignored.

The relations of royal cabinets with other institutions also deserve more research, particularly at the level of instrument transfer and especially the relations with cabinets and astronomical observatories at the College of Santo Antão (1553-1759) and at the Academy of Sciences (1779-present). These relations appear to have been intense, fuelled by royal patronage and stimulated by significant acquisitions of instruments in England and France (Carvalho 1982, 1985, Seruya & Pereira 2005). King João V (reign 1707-1750) was directly involved in, and paid for, instruments acquired for the Observatory of Santo Antão as well as those for his own cabinet and observatory at the Palace of Ribeira (Carvalho 1985), to the extent that the final destination of instruments is difficult to determine. Between the 1720s and 1740s, acquisitions for both observatories were supervised by the same mathematician, Giovanni Battista Carbone. When the Jesuit Order was extinguished in 1759 instruments were apparently transferred to the College of the Nobles (1761-1772) in Lisbon (Guerra 1969) and in 1772 to the University of Coimbra (Carvalho 1978, 1982). The Cabinet of the Academy of Sciences originated in a royal palace and its main organiser, J.J. Solner, seems to have played a significant role at the royal cabinet as well (Carvalho 1982, 1993).

In short, secondary literature indicates that 18th century royal cabinets and royal-sponsored cabinets were at the centre of scientific activity in Lisbon, providing astronomical observations, experiments and public lectures, and possibly initiated instrument trade in Portugal. However, all these fragmented references need to be verified, further explored and confronted with the study of surviving instruments.

Even less is known about the royal cabinet that went to Rio in 1808-10 (Pinheiro 2001) and 19th century royal cabinets of physics. Instruments from King Luis (1838-1889) have figured in catalogues (Godinho 1990). Only one study about the education of the last two generations of princes mentions instruments (Guedes 2004) and much, if not most, needs as yet to be unravelled about 19th century royal cabinets.

For years scientific instruments were not considered relevant for the history of science. In the early 1960s, Lindsay (1962: 238) stated that historians of the physical sciences “have never at any time relied upon collection[s] as a primary research source”. Since the 1990s, the situation began to change and today there is an increasing interest in the role collections played in science. This project is framed by this interest, which not only opens new research windows to the history of science, but also contributes to a growing awareness of the importance of scientific heritage in society.

Roteiro de pesquisa e metodologia (em inglês)

From 1991 to 2003, the Museum of Science of the University of Lisbon received instruments from a secondary school in Lisbon. Documentation provided by the school indicated that these instruments originated from the National Palace of Ajuda, the last residence of the Portuguese royal family before the establishment of the Republic in 1910. Since 2006, a group of historians of science has been studying these instruments. Results so far include a schematic and preliminary genealogy of the royal cabinets, mainly drawn from the literature (Appendix 1). A total of 90 scientific instruments from the 16th to the 19th century have now been identified (Appendix 2) and provenance from the royal collections is confirmed for 40. These are presently dispersed in Lisbon, Coimbra, Vila Viçosa, and Rio de Janeiro (Appendix 3).

The primary aim of this research proposal is to study these instruments and any others that may still exist. The second aim is to thoroughly describe the cabinets of natural philosophy where they were used, including location, content, role, history and relations with other cabinets, namely i) the Cabinet that went to Rio in 1808-1810, ii) the Cabinet and Astronomical Observatory at the Jesuit College of Santo Antão (1553-1759), and iii) the Cabinet of the Academy of Sciences (1779-present). Santo Antão should be looked into because there are some 16th and 17th century instruments which may have come from it. The Cabinet of the Academy of Sciences is an unstudied collection which originated in the Palace of Necessidades and, therefore, it is important to explore its initial roots within the court.

Although this research proposal covers the 18th and 19th century, it has a strong focus on the 18th century for three reasons: i) the majority of instruments are from the 18th century; ii) like elsewhere in Europe, the 18th century was the ‘golden age’ of cabinets of natural philosophy in Portugal; iii) scientific activity in 18th century Lisbon was lively, with the creation of cabinets at the Palaces and other teaching institutions, the creation of the first astronomical observatories, the first organized collections of natural history, the emergence of Portuguese instrument-makers and an increased use of private and public collections for learning purposes.

Methodology will combine i) field visits with ii) instrument study and iii) archival research, and will be implemented in three main stages, organized in six closely articulated Tasks (see Task descriptions).

First, to complete the inventory of instruments to be studied, a systematic survey of the residences formerly occupied by the royal family will be conducted (Task 1, 6 months). The survey will focus on the eight main royal palaces (Ajuda, Belém, Necessidades, Sintra-Vila, Sintra-Pena, Queluz, Mafra and Vila Viçosa).

Given that the dispersal of the royal collections may have been more extensive than presently known and given that important instruments have been found in secondary schools and museums, there is the real possibility that more as yet unidentified instruments exist outside palaces. However, in view of the sheer number of potential locations (there are hundreds of secondary schools and museums), field visits will only be undertaken if sufficient evidence emerges during archival research. To reduce time and costs, the survey of instruments in Brazil will be conducted simultaneously with the material study (Task 4).

The second stage encompasses the material and historical study of each instrument (Task 2) or, in the unlikely event that a large number of instruments are found in Task 1, of a selection of representative instruments. Instrument study will be guided by aspects related to materials, design and construction (including date), function and history (including use).

Instruments identified so far constitute a heterogeneous collection, encompassing astronomical and navigation instruments, mathematical and physics instruments and chemistry glassware. Typologically, there are i) teaching instruments, similar to those found in many universities and schools, ii) state-of-the-art instruments clearly intended for purposes close to what we would call research today; iii) highly decorative instruments, most likely commissioned for display and ostentation, and iv) royal gifts. To facilitate study, instruments will be grouped chronologically (pre-1700, 18th century, 19th century) whenever dating is possible, and thematically (astronomy & navigation, physics, mathematics, chemistry).

Stage three includes the study of the five royal cabinets (Task 3), including location, content, history and relations with the three other cabinets (Tasks 4, 5, 6). It is important to underline that data collected from the instruments’ study will greatly contribute to the study of cabinets and vice versa.

The most important documental sources, as well as their present location, were identified during preliminary studies and archival research will be highly focused. The research is centred on instruments, the majority of them acquired abroad through intermediaries, particularly ambassadors. Therefore, archival documents in which instruments could be mentioned, e.g. inventories, iconography, correspondence, customs’ records, scientific articles and memoires, and invoices, are of great interest. Verification of primary sources in Portuguese 18th and 19th century historiography is also crucial. A substantial part of this will be carried out by the three scholarship holders (S1, S2, S3). 

Equipa (em inglês)

The core research team is highly qualified and motivated and consists of historians of science from the same research unit (CIUHCT, with the exception of one researcher), with an international record of publications, and in workshops and conferences. The team is used to linking what is often unnecessarily separated in the history of science: documents and objects. The team has been working together closely in preliminary research into the royal collections since 2006. Two team members – Henrique Leitão (HL) and Samuel Gessner (SG) – are involved in another FCT collection-based research project (PTDC/HCT/64181/2006), coordinated by Marta Lourenço (ML), from which this application largely derives. As for the PI (ML), her research is focused on the history of scientific collections, particularly teaching and research collections. The three instrument advisors, David Coffeen, António Estácio dos Reis and Paolo Brenni, are internationally renowned scholars with a comprehensive knowledge of instrument collections in Europe and in Portugal.

Collections-based history of science is still unexplored terrain in Portugal. Trained human resources are scarce, being one of the reasons why Portuguese scientific heritage is presently vulnerable and at risk. This project aims to provide young researchers with fruitful opportunities for training, through contact with researchers in Portugal and abroad. The Museum of Science is committed to providing first class conditions and resources for research.

Resultados esperados (em inglês)

Short-term outcome will include a better understanding of the role instruments played in these cabinets and the role cabinets played in the broader development of Portuguese science, particularly in the 18th century. In practice, this will translate into scholarly articles, a workshop, a website, an international conference devoted to the role of instruments as sources for the history of science, four theses and a catalogue raisonné.

Long-term results are expected to be multiple and this research, being exploratory in nature, will pave the way for further research into i) the history of science in Portugal, particularly the scientific education of elites (deliberate strategies, relations with major educational reforms), the transfer of scientific knowledge and instruments from major European centres to a small peripheral country such as Portugal and its former colonies, particularly Brazil; and ii) the history of scientific collections in Portugal, particularly the impact of royal collections in matters of social taste, private collecting, hybridization of cabinets (teaching artefacts and specimens, works of art, royal gifts of commercial or political nature) and the formation of museums.

Bibliografia

• Brigola, J.C.P. 2003. Colecções, gabinetes e museus em Portugal no século XVIII. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian/Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Lisboa.
• Brenni, P. 1995. Gli strumenti di fisica dell’Istituto Tecnico Toscano. Ottica. Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, Firenze.
• Carvalho, R. 1959. História da Fundação do Colégio Real dos Nobres de Lisboa. Atlântida-Livraria Editora, Coimbra.
• Carvalho, R. 1978. História do Gabinete de Física da Universidade de Coimbra. Biblioteca Geral, Universidade de Coimbra.
• Carvalho, R. 1982. A Física Experimental em Portugal no séc. XVIII. Biblioteca Breve, Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portuguesa, Lisboa.
• Carvalho, R. 1985. A Astronomia em Portugal no séc. XVIII. Biblioteca Breve, Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portuguesa, Lisboa.
• Carvalho, R. 1993. O Material didáctico dos séculos XVIII e XIX do Museu Maynense da Academia das Ciências de Lisboa. Academia das Ciências de Lisboa.
• Clercq, P. de, 1992. Le Cabinet de physique du Musée Boerhaave de Leyde. In: D. Ferriot (ed.), Muséologie technique – séminaire de recherche 1990-1991, pp. 61-64. Centre d’Histoire des Techniques, Musée National des Techniques, Paris.
• Godinho, I.S. (org.), 1990. D. Luís. Duque do Porto e Rei de Portugal. Palácio Nacional da Ajuda, Lisboa.
• Guedes, C.C. 2004. A educação dos príncipes no Palácio da Ajuda. Ministério da Cultura/IPPAR e Palácio Nacional da Ajuda, Lisboa.
• Guerra, L.B. 1969c. Arquivo do Tribunal de Contas. Colégios de Santo Antão, São Roque, São Francisco Xavier e Noviciado de Arroios (Companhia de Jesus). In R. Lino & L. Silveira (org). Documentos para a História da Arte em Portugal, vol. 5. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa.
• Impey, O. & A. MacGregor 2001. The Origins of Museums. The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe. 2nd edition, House of Stratus, London.
• Keil, H. & H. Zäh 2004. Tycho Brahes Aufenthalte in Augsburg (1569-1570 und 1575). Beiträge zur Astronomiegeschichte 7: 45-98.
• Leitão,H. 2001. Galileo's Telescopic Observations in Portugal. In J. Montesinos & C. Solís (eds), Largo Campo di Filosofare. Eurosymposium Galileo 2001, pp. 903-13. Fundación Canaria Orotava de la Historia de la Ciencia, La Orotava.
• Leitão, H. 2008. O debate cosmológico na “Aula da Esfera” do Colégio de Santo Antão. In H. Leitão (ed). Sphaera Mundi: A Ciência na Aula da Esfera. Manuscritos científicos de Santo Antão nas Colecções da BNP, pp. 27-44. Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Lisboa.
• Lindsay, G.C. 1962. Museums and research in history and technology. Curator 5: 236-244.
• Lourenço M.C. 2005. Between two worlds: The distinct nature and contemporary significance of university museums and collections in Europe. PhD dissertation, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (Paris).
• Lourenço, M.C. in press. Est-ce qu’elles le méritent? Les collections d’instruments scientifiques dans les universités européennes. In A. Rasmussen, S. Boudia & S. Soubiran (eds). Patrimoine, savoirs et communautés savants. Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
• Mauriès, P. 2002. Cabinets of Curiosities. Thames & Hudson, London.
• Monteiro, N.G. 2008. D. José na sombra de Pombal. Série Reis de Portugal, Temas e Debates, Lisboa.
• Novelli, I. (ed) 2000. La curiosità e l’ingegno. Collezionismo scientifico e método sperimentale a Padova nel Settecento. Università degli Studi di Padova.
• Osório, J.P. 1986. Sobre a história e desenvolvimento da astronomia em Portugal. In História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal, pp. 111-142. Academia das Ciências de Lisboa.
• Pantalony, D., R.L. Kremer & F.J. Manasek 2005. Study, Measure, Experiment. Stories of Scientific Instruments at Dartmouth College. Terra Nova Press, Norwich, Vermont.
• Pinheiro, A.V. 2001. Da Real Biblioteca à Biblioteca Nacional. In P. Pereira (org.) Brasiliana da Biblioteca Nacional. Guia das Fontes sobre o Brasil, pp. 241-250. Fundação Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. 
• Reis, A.E. 1994. Old globes in Portugal. Boletim da Biblioteca da Universidade de Coimbra 42: 281-298.
• Serrão, J.V. 1996. O despotismo iluminado (1750-1807). História de Portugal, vol. VI (5ª edição), Verbo, Lisboa.
• Seruya, A.I. & M. Pereira 2005. Globos Coronelli. Sociedade de Geografia. IPCR, Lisboa. 
• Silva, M.B.N. 2006. D. João V. Círculo de Leitores, Lisboa.
• Simon, W.J. 1983. Scientific expeditions in the Portuguese overseas territories (1783-1808) and the role of Lisbon in the intellectual-scientific community of the late eighteenth century. Instituto de Investigação Científica e Tropical, Lisboa.
• Taton, R. 1696. Enseignement et diffusion des sciences en France au XIIIe siècle. Hermann (republished 1986), Paris.

Publicações

• Brigola, J. 2009. O coleccionismo no século XVIII: Textos e documentos. Porto Editora, Porto.
• Gessner, S. 2008. “Das Spheras Artefiçial, soblunar e Celeste”: O papel dos instrumentos matemáticos nos escritos do Colégio de Santo Antão em Lisboa. In H. Leitão (ed). Sphaera Mundi: A Ciência na Aula da Esfera, pp. 71-88. Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Lisboa.
• Leitão, H. 2007. A Ciência na ‘Aula da Esfera’ no Colégio de Santo Antão 1590-1759. Comissariado Geral das Comemorações do V Centenário do Nascimento de São Francisco Xavier, Lisboa.
• Lourenço, M.C. 2008. Entre deux mondes: Avenir des collections d’enseignement et de recherche. In P.-A. Gérard (ed), Les collections scientifiques des universités, pp. 15-25. Collection ‘Histoire des Institutions Scientifiques’, Presses Universitaires de Nancy.
• Lourenço M.C. 2005. Between two worlds: The distinct nature and contemporary significance of university museums and collections in Europe. PhD dissertation, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (Paris) (accessible online at http://webpages.fc.ul.pt/~mclourenco/)